论文写作research method汇编

Features of qualitative studyNaturalistic◦◦Actual situations as the direct source of dataThe researcher is the key instrument and goes to the ◦particular setting under studyConcerned with the context and processDescriptive◦Everything could be a clue to a more comprehensive understanding of what is under studyInductive◦Start with no hypothesis (no presuppositions about the subject)◦◦Putting the pieces together to find out the whole◦Let the understanding evolve through the processBottom upConcerned with Meaning◦◦Interested in the life as well as the understanding of peopleHow do people negotiate meaning?Important Important issues about qualitative researchissues about Generalizability: ◦Qualitative research findings are generalizableto some extent◦Effecting changes is more important than generalizabilitySubjectivity:◦As a researcher, you should reduce your opinions, prejudices, and other biases as much as possible.◦Get rid of the assumptions before you start◦Try to minimize and overcome your prejudice which may haveeffect on the data.Process is more important than prediction and verification◦Making adjustments if necessaryTruthful to the findingsMore about qualitative researchRelationship between the researcher and the researched◦Full respect for the participants◦Cooperation◦Going along with the research and the researched Presence of the researcher:◦The researcher should try to make the subjects forget the existence of the camera, recorder, etc.Different researchers:◦They may not come up with exactly the same results, but they surely share some similarities.2

What is a quantitative researchDefinition:◦an inquiry into a socialbased on testing a theoryor human problem variables, measured with numbers, and composed of analyzed with statistical procedures, into determine whether the predictive order generalizations of the theory hold trueIt is a formal, objective, systematic process in which numerical data are utilized to obtain information about the worldFeatures of Quantitative StudyQuantitative research is about quantifying the relationships between variables. The researcher knows in advance what he or she is looking for.Goal: Prediction, control, confirmation, test hypotheses.All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data are collected. The researcher tends to remain objectively separated from the subject matter.Deductive --to test theory/hypothesis8Comparison between qualitative and quantitative research1.Terms/phrases associated with the approach2.Key concepts associated with the approach3.Theoretical affiliation4.Academic affiliation5.Goals6.Design7.Data 8.Sample9.Techniques or methods10.Relationship with subjects11.Instruments and tools12.Data analysis13.Written research proposals3

1. Terms/phrases associated with the approachQualitativeQuantitative◦Naturalistic◦Fieldwork◦Experimental◦Soft data◦Harddata◦Inner perspective◦Outer perspective◦Ethnographic◦Positivist◦Participant observation◦Social facts◦Life history◦Statistical◦Case study◦Scientific method◦Narrative◦Inductive ◦Descriptive◦Interpretive2. Key concepts associated with the approachQualitativeQuantitative◦Meaning◦Viability◦Definitionof situation◦Reliability◦Everydaylife◦Hypothesis◦Negotiated order◦Validity◦Understanding◦Statistically significant◦Process◦Replication◦For all practical purposes◦Prediction ◦Social construction3. Theoretical affiliationQualitativeQuantitative◦Symbolicinteraction◦Structuralfunctionalism◦Ethnomethodolgy◦Realism, positivism◦Phenomenology◦Behaviorism◦Culture◦Logical empiricism◦Idealism◦Systems theory4

4. Academic affiliationQualitativeQuantitative◦Sociology◦Sociology◦History◦Psychology◦Anthropology ◦Economics◦Political science5. GoalsQualitativeQuantitative◦Developconceptssensitizing ◦Theory testing◦Establishing facts◦Describerealitiesmultiple ◦Showbetween variablesrelationship◦Developunderstanding◦Prediction6. Design QualitativeQuantitative◦Evolving◦Flexible◦Structured◦General hunch as to ◦Predeterminedhow you might ◦Formal, specificproceed◦Detailed plan of operation5

7. Data QualitativeQuantitative◦Descriptive◦Personal documents◦Quantitative◦Fieldnotes◦Quantifiable coding◦Photographs◦Counts, measures◦People’s own words◦Operationalizedvariables◦Official documents and other artifacts◦Statistics8. Sample QualitativeQuantitative◦Small◦Non-representative◦Large◦Theoretical sampling◦Stratified◦Snow-ball sampling◦Control groups◦Purposeful◦Precise◦Random selection◦Control of extraneous variables9. Techniques or methodsQualitativeQuantitative◦Reviewing various documents, etc.◦Experiments◦Quasi experiments◦Observation◦Structured ◦Open-endedinterviewingobservations◦Structured ◦Firstperson accountsinterviewing◦Survey research6

10. Relationship with subjectsQualitativeQuantitative◦Empathy◦Detachment◦Emphasis on trust◦Short-term◦Egalitarian◦Distant◦Subject as friend◦Subject-researcher◦Intense contact◦Circumscribed11. Instruments and toolsQualitativeQuantitative◦Tape recorder◦Inventories◦Transcriber◦Questionnaires◦Computer◦Indexes◦Scales◦Test scores◦Computer12. Data analysisQualitativeQuantitative◦Inductive◦Deductive◦Ongoing◦Occurs at conclusion ◦Procedures not of data collectionstandardized◦Obtrusiveness◦Difficultpopulationsto study large ◦Validity7

13. Written research proposalsQualitativeQuantitative◦Brief◦Extensive◦Speculative◦Detailed and ◦Suggests areasspecific in focusmay be relevant to research ◦Detailed and ◦Oftenspecific in data have been collectedwritten after some procedure◦Not◦Written prior to data substantive literature extensive in collectionreview◦Thorough review of substantive ◦General statement of literatureapproach◦HypothesisQualitative vs. QuantitativeCan qualitative and quantitative approaches be used together?◦Combination of both qualitative and quantitative research: More convincingHow does qualitative research differ from quantitative research?◦Qualitative: What is the nature of a problem? ◦Quantitative: To what extent the problem is existing?Which research approach is better, qualitative or quantitative?◦It depends on the purpose of your research, i.e., what you want to find out.What makes a study scientific and convincing?Is it scientific?◦Quantitative research is supported by statistics; Numbers can tell something, but not everything.◦Sometimes we need to know the nature of a phenomenon, and something that cannot be quantified.◦What is difficult to understand does not necessarily mean it is more scientific.What makes it scientific is:◦the consistence in philosophical understanding and procedural methods◦open recognition of researcher’s perspective and subjectivity8

Summary: and quantitative researchEssentials Essentials of qualitative of qualitative QualitativeQuantitativeInductive: bottom-upDeductive: top-downIn-depthLarge scaleInterpretiveValidityMeaningStatisticsInterviews QuestionnairesGenerates theoryTests hypothesisSurvey DesignQuestionnaire◦A document containing a set of questions, which has been specially formulated as a means of collecting information and surveying opinions, etc. on a specified subject or theme, etc.Interview◦A talk through which the researcher asks the interviewee a series of questions to find out some information about the interviewee.Seven usual types of survey questions1.Demographic questions2.Yes-no questions3.Multiple choice questions4.List questions5.Scale questions6.List-rank questions7.Open-ended questions9

1.Demographic questionsDemographical information of target subjects, such as age, gender, nationality, educational background, occupation, etc.Be cautious when asking private and sensitive questions, such as religion, political affiliation, etc.marital status, income,2. Yes-2. Yes-No QuestionsThe formal term of Yes/No questions is “dichotomous questions”This type of questions offer the respondent a choice between two options, and instantly divide the opinions into two groups. ◦Example:Do you have on-the-job training programs in your company?A. Yes. B. No.3. Multiple Choice questionsDefinition:◦Fixed alternative questions that allow the respondents to choose one answer from a pool of given replies.◦The most important quality: All the choices to a certain question must be fully exclusive to each other.Only one can be chosen to answer the question from the options specified◦Example:YourA.opiniononpresentEnglishtextbook:D. displeased E. very displeased verypleased B. pleased C. neutral 10

4. List questionsIn your specified context or scenario, make a list of answers for the subjects to choose from, usually with no limit on the number of choicesPut a bracket (for “other” choices) at the end of all choices◦Example:Which of the following have you attended in the past six months?A. Art exhibitionB. balletC. cinemaD. ConcertE. dramaF. KaraokeG. LectureH. musicalsI. operaJ. Other performances______________(please specify)5. Scale questionsLikertotherwise immeasurable qualities such as approach, scale questions are designed to measure outlook, position, attitude, mind-set and ways of thinking◦Example:Read the statement below, then circle the number that best indicates your agreement or disagreement with that statement“The course provided at this university are as good as I’d expected.”StronglyStronglyagreedisagree123456. List-6. List-Rank questionsList-rank questions is a combination of multiple-choice and scale questions. With this type, you first provide a list of questions, and each is followed by some fixed alternatives◦Example:As you see it, making a phone call while driving a vehicle is: Risky12345SafeCool12345Not coolCute12345Not cuteExpert12345Inexpert11

Closed questions (封闭式问题)The previous 6 types of questions are more or less “closed questions”, which provide several answers following each question and require the subjects to select one of the answers. You can put marks before answers, efor B, 3 for C, 2ofthequestionnaireforD,canandbe1quantified.forE. Theng. 5 for A, 4 theresultsAdvantages and disadvantages of closed questions◦Advantages: easy for both the subjects and the designer◦Drawbacks: the subjects may have much more than we can hear.7. Open7. Open-(开放式问题-ended ended question)questionOpen questions do not require a simple answer and can be answered freelyby the subject◦e.g. What’s your opinion on the present English textbook?However, such kind of questions cannot be quantified. It can only be used in qualitativeresearch. Advantages and disadvantages:◦Advantages: Respondents have much more space for their opinions. Meanwhile they are provided opportunities to express in their own words.◦Disadvantages: Respondents may digress from the topic, and the data obtained can be miscellaneous, which may make the subsequent analysis more difficult and time-consuming.Questionnaire Design ProcessThedescribeddesignofaquestionnaireinclude:intermsofaseriesofcanSTEPSbethat(1)Selectingthemodesofadministration(2)Specifyingwhatkindofdatayouintendtocollect(3)Determiningthewayyouprocessthequestionnairedata(4)Decidingonthecontentofindividualitems(5)Choosingquestionstructure(6)Determiningtheorderofquestions(7)Decidingtheformatofaquestionnaire(8)Conductingapilotstudytotestthequestionnaire12

Cover letterQuestionnaires start with a cover letter◦It often starts by addressing the target respondents with “Dear Sirs and madams” or “Dear Friends”, like a letter.◦It includes a short preface about you as the researcher and a problem statement explaining your research question and your purpose for this survey.◦The problem and its possible solutions are your central points for which you want other people to contribute to, at least to voice their say.Criteria for a Good Questionnaire(1)Having high internal validity◦The items in the questionnaire must be the variables you really want to investigate(2)Four cautions in setting achievable questions:◦Reasonable, considerate, concrete, integration(3)Taking a professional outlookContains a cover letter and a problem statementAvoid crowding questions together to make the questionnaire look shorter.Do not print one question across two pages.Using the printing papers of high quality to make reading clear and easy.Types of InterviewWhat types of interview to adopt depends on the goal of your research◦Personal interview or Group interview◦Telephone interview or Face-to-face interviewThere are three types of interviews depending on the degree of freedom on the part of the interviewer.(1) Unstructured interview (非结构化访谈)(2) Semi-structured interview (半结构化访谈)(3) Structured interview (结构化访谈)13

Types of Interview(1) Unstructured interview (open interviews)◦An informal, friendly conversation, providing interviewers with a lot of freedom, with questions generated spontaneously in the natural flow of the interaction.(2)Semi-structured interview◦It is conducted according to an interview schedule prepared in advance, but the order and actual wording of the questions need not be determined before the interview.(3)Structured interview◦It consistsand arranged with the intention of taking each interviewee of a set of open-ended questions carefully worded through the same sequence and asking each interviewee the same questions with essentially the same words.Process of an interviewBefore the interview◦◦Appointment: time and placePreparation:Facilities: recorder, video camera, batteriesBackground informationInterview guidelines (questions)During the interview◦◦Start with some small talk◦Asking for permission to record◦Explaining your purposesTaking notesAfter the interview◦◦Save the files to your computer◦Write down your journal◦Do the transcription as soon as possible◦Read relevant literature and rethink the issueBe objective when analyzing the dataPrinciplesListen carefullyDo not take things for grantedAsk questions when you are not sure about the meaningProbe into the native concepts Jump on opportunities for new understanding of something you thought you knewGive up your plan when necessaryKeep an open mindBe aware of your assumptionsThe same question can mean very different things to different peopleStay focused but try not to interruptTry to bring the interviewee back cleverly when he starts to digress14

Interviewing StrategiesUsing a tape recorderProbinglearning how to probe effectively.: The key to successful interviewing is ◦Silent probe◦Echo probe ◦Uh-huh probeWhat do you mean?Could you explain that?Conversational style: Why did you say that?◦in a natural manner; ◦keep the conversation on the track; ◦flexibility and spontaneity.A good interviewEasy conversationKeep the conversation on trackThe interviewer does the probing and the interviewee does the talkingAvoid reading from your interview guidelineLet the flow of the conversation go at its own pace, do not rushDiagnose the following questions raised by Exercise 1: the interviewer.Purpose of the study:◦Try to find out whether there is any relationship between language level and students’ thinking abilities in second language writingQuestions to be asked in the interview (for English majors)◦Do you think English level will influence your thinking ability in writing?◦What do you think of the present English education in relation to the development of thinking abilities?◦Do you think your thinking ability will be improved if you major in another subject?15

Another Example Purpose:◦to investigate the status of people who participated in the graduate entrance examination for at least twice or those who have just failed and want to try againResearch plan:◦to look for subjects on the internet through carefully browsing some graduate entrance examination forums and get access to them. Interview them through QQ.Basic questions like their gender, age, birthplace, family members, economic status, educational background, etc.Do you think an MA degree can guarantee you a better Other questions:1.job? Have you seen any counter-truth?2.Do you think it is proper for people above 25 to make efforts to enter the graduate school?3.Which university have you applied? If you fail your first application, are you willing to be adjusted to a less good university or college?4.How many times have you taken part in the graduate entrance examination? At most how many times can you endure?5.If you fail again, will you make another effort? Why? Or why not?6.How did you pass the failure time? How long did it take you to get rid of the shadow of failure? Relationship between Questionnaires and InterviewsQuestionnaires may contain closed questions or open-ended questions. Similarly, interviews may be conducted by open-ended questions or closed questions. Only truly lead to opened-endedquestions can quantified.qualitative data, and cannot be 16

FieldworkThe success of qualitative studies depends on the establishment of good human relationshipThe purpose of fieldwork is to maximize the possibility of acquiring quality dataGetting into the Field◦To establish relationship with the participants◦To build up a rapport with the informants◦To get support from the administrators◦To gaining access to dataTaking fieldnotesTaking fieldnotesStarting your observation without an assumptionFinding a focus in your observationKeeping yourself focused in your observationTaking notes and sharing your experience in observationA sample of an observation reportObservation Report on ________________Date: Time:Place:Observer:Purpose: To find out …Details◦Topic sentence◦First, ◦Second, ◦…◦Summary Discussion17

Try it out!Interview:◦Work out your interview guidelines based on your research questions◦Interview relevant people who may provide the information you need◦Tape it down for transcriptionQuestionnaire:◦Design your questionnaire based on your research questions◦Do a pilot study among a small sample of subjects◦Summarize the results of the survey18